Church records rank among the most promising of genealogical records available. Indeed, for periods before the advent of civil registration of vital statistics (a very late development in many American states), church records rank as the best available sources for information on specific vital events: birth, marriage, and death.
They are also among the most under-used major records in American genealogy. Part of the reason lies in the number of denominations—there are hundreds of them. Identifying and locating the records of these various churches makes even professional genealogists hesitate. Yet the task is not impossible. Microfilming, photocopying, and indexing techniques make church records more accessible now than ever before.
Church records vary a great deal in content and emphasis according to the basic theology and social role of each denomination. However, a useful distinction is the difference between “state” churches and so-called “free” churches. State, or “established,” churches in Europe considered every Christian in the state or kingdom to be a member. Free, or “gathered,” churches emphatically rejected this inclusive view of belonging from birth. Rather, only those who had been “born again” in Christ could be considered true members of his church. The sign of this rebirth in Christ was another baptism (adult baptism) that took precedence over the person’s baptism as an infant. For this practice they were called Anabaptists—from the Latin for “rebaptizers.” The descendants of the Anabaptists include Mennonites, Hutterites, many smaller groups associated with the Pennsylvania Germans, and their British cousins, the Baptists, who form the dominant religion in much of America today.
Because Anabaptists saw the most important event in a person’s life as his or her rebirth in Christ, not his or her physical birth, their records reflect the difference. Baptist records contain much valuable historical information about the activities of adult members, but they do not always deliver accurate birth information. In contrast, Lutherans meticulously recorded infant births and subsequent parish baptisms.
Of course, theology is not the only factor that has determined the types of records kept. In Scandinavia and many German states, the Lutheran church was the established church. Thus, the pastor was a quasi-public official who was the official recorder of births, deaths, and marriages. Similarly, in England, a 1538 Act of Parliament required all ministers of the Church of England to record baptisms, marriages, and burials in their parishes. In 1597, another parliamentary act reinforced the original law, requiring that duplicates of parish records be sent annually to the bishop of the pertinent diocese, initiating the valuable “bishops’ transcripts.”
In Scotland, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and certain German states where Calvinism became the established faith, pastors were also official record keepers. Not all German Protestants were Lutherans. In many German states, most notably in Prussia, the state church combined Lutheran and Calvinist elements, resulting in long-range consequences when German immigrants organized churches in the New World.
In areas of Europe where Roman Catholicism was the established faith, parish priests were the official recorders of baptisms, marriages, and burials. They were accountable to more than local parliaments, however. In 1563, the church’s Council of Trent issued a decree requiring proof of baptism before marriage. Subsequent decrees reinforced this edict, notably that of Pope Paul V in 1614, which made parish registers obligatory.
Church record-keeping transcended national and religious boundaries. It was a manifestation of a stage of European civilization that emphasized rationality and bureaucracy. Human memory and oral tradition no longer sufficed. The written record prevailed.
This background is relevant to discussion of American church records because habits, attitudes, and ecclesiastical edicts crossed oceans with the emigrants. The various immigrant churches, including those that developed in Plymouth Colony in the 1620s, reflected European philosophy and practices. In fact, most of the American colonies promptly established state churches. In New England, the Congregational Church generally held preferred status. In the southern colonies (Virginia, Georgia, and South Carolina), the Church of England (Protestant Episcopal) became the established church, as it was in Maryland for a time, even though that colony was originally founded as a haven for Roman Catholics. As long as the Dutch controlled New Netherland (now New York), the Dutch Reformed Church served as the established church.
Some of these established churches functioned on a state level until well after the American Revolution, but the variety of immigrant groups and religious preferences ultimately defeated all attempts to impose religious uniformity. The Founding Fathers recognized this fact, totally separating church and state nationally when they drew up the Constitution. The wisdom of this decision was verified by the Great Awakening of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, which shook established churches to the core and guaranteed that American religious life would be fundamentally different from that of the Old World.
The United States possesses a tremendous, sometimes bewildering, variety of religious groups that have widely differing record-keeping practices. Nevertheless, certain basic types of records found at the parish, or local, level can be identified.
Types of Church Records
Baptism and Christening Records
Baptism or christening records almost always list at least the name of the person baptized, the date and place of birth, and the date and place of the baptism. For infant baptisms, the pastor usually recorded the parents’ names and often their place of residence, particularly if the pastor was serving a circuit rather than a single parish. Quite often, the register lists the date of birth or at least the age of the person being baptized. In addition, many baptismal records list the names of sponsors or godparents, who are often close relatives of the parents.
Marriage Records
The second major type of church records are marriage records. Almost all American denominations have recorded marriages, although there are some interesting exceptions. For instance, the early Puritans viewed marriage as a civil contract. Hence, marriages were performed by a civil magistrate and were not recorded in the church registers. This was not a typical situation, however. In most areas, church marriage records predate civil marriage records by many decades and sometimes even centuries. For instance, South Carolina did not record marriages (except for marriage contracts) at the county or state level until 1911. In such situations, church marriage records acquire greater importance.
Church marriage records vary widely in content. Some provide nothing more than the names of the bride and groom and the date. Catholic, Lutheran, and German Reformed marriage records frequently list the birthplace of the bride and groom.
Death Records
Church marriage records are often useful in locating an immigrant ancestor’s birthplace, but, in my professional experience, church death registers have been the single most valuable source for tracing an immigrant’s place of birth. Originally, churches recorded burials rather than deaths, and some churches still do. However, most American church records also list the date of death, and often they record a great deal more information.
Confirmation Records
While most genealogists are aware of the value of baptismal, marriage, and death records, they sometimes overlook other types of church records that also contain valuable genealogical and historical information; confirmation records are a case in point. Most how-to books dismiss them as mere name lists, which, admittedly, is often the case. However, those of the Scandinavian Lutheran denominations contain voluminous information, as do present-day Episcopal churches.
Scandinavian-American Lutheran confirmation records typically contain exceptionally valuable genealogical information. German-American Lutheran and Reformed confirmation records often contain the date of baptism and sometimes the place. Episcopal churches include records of baptism in the confirmation records and file a report with the bishop. Catholic confirmation records seldom contain the place of baptism. Most American Protestant denominations, if they perform confirmations at all, merely list the names of those confirmed and the date of the event, marking the young person’s entry into full membership in the congregation. Some also give the ages of those confirmed, yielding more precise estimates of birth data and identities.
Membership Records
Confirmation records lead to another category of church sources: membership records. One type of membership record is communicant lists. While not as valuable to the genealogist as the records already discussed, they can be of great help in reconstructing a family history. The sudden disappearance of a couple from the communicant lists may signify their departure from the community. The disappearance of one but not the other may indicate death, an important clue if the death records no longer exist.
Usually, the regular membership list is of greater genealogical value. In some cases, however, it too may be only a name list. But by the late nineteenth century, many Protestant churches kept fairly good membership records. The particular value of this record is in the information it contains about the movement of members in and out of the congregation. Some of these “removals” or “dismissals” occurred well after 1930, the date of the latest federal census available to the public. The implications for the genealogist seeking heirs rather than ancestors are obvious. Church records should not be dismissed as irrelevant for periods after civil registration began in a given state or community.
Other Types of Church Records
In addition to the types of records discussed above, local parishes or congregations created many other genealogically valuable types of church records: minutes of the church council or vestry, disciplinary records, pew rentals, and family registers, among others. If the ancestor was active in church affairs, such records can be invaluable for reconstructing the family’s history.
Many genealogists overlook church records created at the diocesan or denominational level. Admittedly, many such records lie moldering in church archives and are not easily accessible. But when such records are available, they can be of very great genealogical value. For example, bishops of the Episcopal Church keep records of “Episcopal Acts,” which include ordinations, confirmations, and admission and dismissal of clergy. An excellent example of this sort of church record is Minutes of the Methodist Conferences Annually Held in America; From 1773 to 1813 Inclusive Volume the First (New York: 1813. Reprint. Swainsboro, Ga.: Magnolia Press, 1983). This volume lists the names of the circuit riders in the various districts of the church, often listing their admission into the church, their ordinations, and tenure. Obituaries of some of the pastors provide invaluable genealogical data that is otherwise unavailable.
Obituaries can be found in another type of church record: the denominational or diocesan newspaper. Many of these contain obituaries of lay members as well as clergymen and their wives.
A useful guide to published indexes of obituaries appearing in church and other newspapers is Betty M. Jarboe, Obituaries: A Guide to Sources, 2nd ed. (Boston: G.K Hall & Co., 1989). Also valuable in this regard is Anita Cheek Milner, comp., Newspaper Indexes: A Location and Subject Guide for Researchers, 3 vols. (Metuchen, N.J., and London: Scarecrow Press, 1977, 1979, 1982).
Church annuals and directories contain lists of clergy. In the Episcopal Church such directories, annuals, and almanacs were first published in the 1830s. The Episcopal Church Clerical Directory is now published biennially by the Church Hymnal Corporation, a subsidiary of the Church Pension Fund.
Two real difficulties with American church records are, first, locating them and, second, obtaining access to them. Various denominations have differing policies on public access to their records.
Determining the church your ancestor attended is the first task in locating church records. In some families this poses no great problem due to a continuing religious tradition. Even in cases of changing affiliations, the family’s Bibles and other papers—baptismal certificates, wedding announcements, etc.—should be searched for clues. County marriage records, if they exist, often give the name of the clergyman who officiated. If a county history exists, it will usually list the various churches and their clergymen, thus enabling you to identify the clergyman’s denomination.
In large cities, the task becomes a bit more complicated, for the county history may not list every clergyman for every church. Fortunately, city directories usually list the clergymen and their churches. Larger libraries often possess microfilm copies of city directories dating back to the first half of the nineteenth century.
Of course, the ancestral pair may have been married by the local justice of the peace, which complicates the problem. However, their siblings may have preferred a religious ceremony; and since a wedding customarily takes place in the bride’s church, the marriages of the groom’s sisters are worth seeking to determine which church his family attended.
The same basic procedure can be followed with the civil death records. The death certificate may list the name of the clergyman who conducted the funeral. If not, it may state the name of the undertaker. If it does, a check of a current city or telephone directory may yield the present address of the funeral establishment. A letter to the firm could produce the name of the clergyman, as well as other extremely valuable genealogical information. Some mortuaries also cater to persons of specific religious affiliations, so ask their morticians directly for this information. If the ancestor was hospitalized before his or her death, hospital records may contain information about religious affiliation and additional genealogical data. Another approach for determining religious affiliation is the obituary column of the local newspaper. Obituaries vary greatly in quality, but they usually list the time and place of the funeral and burial.
But what if the ancestor died before civil registration of vital statistics began or before newspapers carried obituaries? As the late Derek Harland stated, “In no other aspect or phase of genealogy is a knowledge of the history or geography of the area in which research is to be carried out more essential than in the study of the church records of the United States.”
Using other types of available records—census returns, land records, and county plat maps—you can pinpoint where the ancestor actually lived, then determine what churches existed in the area. Sometimes the task is simpler if the area was settled by a single national or ethnic group with a historically dominant religion, such as Polish (Catholic), Norwegian (Lutheran), or Scottish (Presbyterian). However, many European immigrants, even those who came from countries dominated by a state religion, chose other religions after they arrived in the United States. For instance, the state church of Sweden was Lutheran, but many Swedes became Baptists or Methodists in America. Many Germans who immigrated to Pennsylvania in the eighteenth century were not Lutherans but religious dissenters—Amish, Mennonites, or Baptists. The LDS church conducted an extremely successful missionary program in Sweden and Denmark in the mid-nineteenth century.
To further complicate the situation, various German states adopted Calvinism, or a blend of Lutheranism and Calvinism, as the state church—among them the Rhenish Palatinate and Prussia. Some immigrant pastors from these areas organized German Reformed or German Evangelical churches in the New World. Today these churches form part of the United Church of Christ. German pastors of Methodist persuasion successfully organized many congregations that are today part of the United Methodist Church.
Generally speaking, immigrants, if they went to church at all, attended churches where their native language was spoken. People needed a community where they could function as equals. Family members of some denominations may have crossed denominational lines to serve as sponsors or witnesses in religious events for friends and relatives. Therefore, try to find all the churches of your ancestor’s language group in the area.
In the South, even though it never experienced a major influx of non-English-speaking immigrants in the nineteenth century, church records are crucial for genealogical success and, at the same time, problematic. They are crucial because no other records exist and problematic because they do not always contain needed information. The South was the last area of the United States to establish statewide civil registration, viewing vital records as the business of churches.
In colonial times, the Protestant Episcopal Church was the established church in many southern colonies. In frontier communities, such as Augusta County, Virginia, there were more Presbyterians (Scots-Irish) than Protestant Episcopalians or Anglicans (English), so the established parishes were presided over by Presbyterians and held Presbyterian services. The Augusta Church physically housed the Revolutionary Committee of Safety and even the Virginia Provincial Assembly for a period of time during the break with England. It is always wise to check the established church records even if your ancestors were known to belong to another faith.
With the advent of the Great Awakening in the eighteenth century, the emotional and spiritual declaration of independence so crucial to the formation of the American character, record-keeping received less priority. The date of a person’s rebirth in Jesus was often considered more important than his or her physical birth. The continuing westward migration of settlers made exact record-keeping difficult as well.
The International Genealogical Index (IGI), established by the Genealogical Society of Utah and available at the Family History Library and its family history centers, contains entries from many American church records—for example, Dutch Reformed records for New York and New Jersey, Lutheran and German Reformed records for Pennsylvania, and Congregational records for the New England states. There are also Presbyterian, Quaker, and Roman Catholic sources in the IGI.
In some states, the state historical society has become the official archives for certain denominations. For example, the State Historical Society of Wisconsin is the official archive for the United Church of Christ in that state. Often, however, the records you need are still in the possession of the local church. If the church is still in existence and the name has not changed, the telephone directory may solve the problem. If an individual church has merged with another one of the same denomination, the yearbook of the denomination should have the name, address, and current pastor of the merged church. If the denomination has merged or split, Mead and Hill’s Handbook of American Denominations can be extremely useful. If the church is defunct, contact another church of the same denomination in the area and inquire about the locations of the records. If the denomination requires that the records of defunct churches be sent to a central archive, the local minister may know the address and whom to contact. Another source of information could be the state organization of the denomination.
If you locate the church but the older records are missing, discuss the problem with the current minister. He may know which archive they are stored in. If not, he may know descendants of former pastors who have kept records, or he may be able to refer you to older members of the congregation who are well versed in local church history.
Next, contact the local historical or genealogical society. If that does not prove productive, write or visit the denominational archive. Older records of a particular church may have been deposited there years before. The state office of the denomination can sometimes help in your quest.
If the records are known to have been destroyed—in a fire, perhaps—the personal records of former pastors sometimes prove effective substitutes. Many clergymen kept their own private record of baptisms, marriages, and funerals at which they officiated. In fact, in areas where no permanent churches existed, the private records of the circuit-riding pastors may be the only records ever made. The first place to look for these is the denominational archive; however, some of these pastoral records have found their way into private or state archives. An extremely useful guide to these private pastoral records and other church records is the National Union Catalog of Manuscript Collections (NUCMC).
If, after all of your efforts, you are unable to learn the denomination of your ancestor, the local historical or genealogical society can often be of great assistance. Because the leadership of such groups can change from year to year, it may require additional effort to identify the current president and his or her mailing address—but it is usually worth the effort. I have received very good cooperation from various county historical societies, the staffs of which will often perform research for modest fees.
Another resource is the local public library. In some communities, the public library is the repository of genealogical material, including old church records. Larger public libraries may have a genealogical reference specialist who can assist you. You can usually locate public libraries through directory assistance, but the American Library Directory will also list the local library.
Many communities possess neither a local historical society nor a public library. If a town has a weekly newspaper, the editor can sometimes be a good source of local historical information or can refer you to someone who is. The county or town clerk’s office may not have sufficient staff to conduct genealogical searches and may refer all requests to a local researcher. Often, these individuals know a great deal about local history, including church history.
A vexing situation involving church records can occur when they fall into private hands. Sometimes a clerk of the parish kept the records for so many years that he came to regard them as his personal possessions. More typically, a minister has died and his private records, or those of a defunct church he served, remain in the possession of his family, never finding their way to a public or private archives. Perhaps the best way to solve problems of this sort is to visit the area and contact as many relatives and former parishioners of the pastor as possible. If time and money do not permit this approach, you might hire a local researcher who is well acquainted with the area. This problem does not lend itself to easy solutions.
Still another important source of defunct church records is college libraries, particularly denominational colleges. For instance, Swarthmore College in Swarthmore, Pennsylvania, possesses an extremely important collection of Quaker records. The same holds true for many other church colleges. In fact, some serve as official or quasi-official repositories for their denominations. The Yearbook of American and Canadian Churches contains a list of all church-related colleges, with the denominational affiliation noted.
Also, certain private libraries not affiliated with any religious denomination contain a vast amount of genealogical data, including church records. The Library of the National Society, Daughters of the American Revolution, in Washington, D.C., is undoubtedly the best known of these.
Effective use of church records requires following some basic rules of genealogical research and knowing the particular hazards associated with church records. Be sure to search other available records from the locality. If the church death registers are missing, try the county probate records. Note the names of witnesses at weddings and baptisms and look for your direct ancestors as witnesses; very important family relationships can be discovered in this manner. If the congregation is of a particular ethnic group, note the birthplaces of other members as listed in the marriage or death records. Even if your ancestor’s place of origin is not given, he or she may have come from the same town or area.
In frontier communities, people often attended whatever church or circuit-riding services existed, regardless of affiliation. Thus, a Methodist family may have attended a Baptist church at one time.
Knowing the particular doctrines and discipline of a denomination helps in using the record. If a church did not practice infant baptism, you need to know this or you could make serious errors in calculating birth dates.
Some churches have devised standard forms to reply to requests for information from their records. Some of these date from the 1930s, when the primary object was to verify a person’s age. Often, therefore, they do not contain all the information found in the original record. Hence, you should request all the information in the pertinent entry. If you are interested in finding an ancestor’s place of birth in Europe, indicate so.
Be aware of some of the inherent limitations of church records. Even in churches which practiced infant baptism, a significant amount of time might elapse between the date of a child’s birth and baptism. Be wary when it appears that entries have been made some time after the rite occurred. Errors often creep in when this happens.
Particularly problematical are typewritten or printed transcriptions of church records, especially if they have been translated from another language. In spite of the best efforts of the translator or transcriber, mistakes occur. Quite often, transcriptions do not include all of the data in the original entry. The names of baptismal sponsors or occupations may be omitted, for example. Sometimes alphabetized information may conceal important clues, such as children baptized in the same family or a brother and sister marrying the same day. Therefore, make every effort to locate the original record or, at least, a microfilm copy. Do not let a foreign language deter you. With common sense and a dual-language dictionary you may be able to decipher it. If not, find someone who can. The results may be worth the extra effort.
If the original record is still in the custody of the church, obtaining permission to see it may pose a problem. In several years of genealogical research, I have encountered this situation only once. A Lutheran pastor in Wisconsin felt that his congregational records were too fragile for public use and insisted that he check the records himself, while I watched. His concern was legitimate, as the records clearly needed rebinding. Depending upon the situation, you may suggest that the records could be microfilmed for safekeeping. One genealogist of my acquaintance brought some nineteenth-century church records from Ohio to Salt Lake City to be microfilmed by the Genealogical Society of Utah, the originals then being returned to the owner. Several states also have microfilming programs.
Traditionally, Catholic records have been kept at the parish level, so the vast majority of sacramental records (baptism, marriage, communion, confirmation, burial, and other original records) will be found in the church in which the event took place. However, older records and those of closed parishes have often been moved (usually by order of the diocese) to diocesan archives, or occasionally to historical societies or university archives. Locating records of older churches can be challenging. When a family is known to have lived in a particular county or in a specific neighborhood in a city, yet the parish is unknown or has been closed, local diocesan sources can at least provide information on where those records can be found. Virginia Humling, U.S. Catholic Sources: A Diocesan Research Guide (Salt Lake City: Ancestry, 1995) provides information on the more than one hundred archdioceses and dioceses in the United States, together with a description of the area encompassed by the archdiocese or dioceses, and addresses, telephone numbers, historical information, fees (if applicable), addresses, and other information on how to obtain newspapers for each archdiocese or diocese.
The press of pastoral duties has forced many priests to delegate the responsibility for answering genealogical inquiries to the parish secretary or a parish volunteer. An increasing number of Catholic diocesan archives—that of Newark, for example—have permitted the Genealogical Society of Utah to microfilm their older records. Hence, a check of the Family History Library Catalog for the locality in question is highly recommended.
When you request data from local church records, do not expect the pastor or the parish secretary to do your genealogical research for you. If your initial inquiry proves unsuccessful, visit the church yourself or hire a local genealogist. Sometimes a church officer can suggest a member of the congregation who is proficient in genealogical research. Include a check as well as a self-addressed, stamped envelope with your initial request. Five to ten dollars is a reasonable minimum; send a larger amount if your request covers more than an entry or two. Some churches will return your check. Most churches are very cooperative, certainly in answering the first inquiry.
Cemetery records and headstone inscriptions are also sources of birth and death information. The custom of burying the dead in areas set aside for that purpose goes back thousands of years, but the genealogist’s interest focuses mainly on historic periods in Jewish and Christian communities. The records of this type most commonly found are church burial registers, sextons' records, cemetery deed and plot registers, burial permit records, grave opening orders, and monument (gravestone) inscriptions.
Such records usually supplement standard sources of genealogical information, but sometimes they represent the only information that can be found pertaining to the birth and death of an ancestor. Using these records effectively requires specific knowledge of their content, availability, and location. The following section, based on Arlene Eakle, How to Search a Cemetery (Salt Lake City: The Genealogical Institute, 1974), appeared in the first edition of The Source. It has since undergone extensive revision by Jeanne Gentry, president of the Oregon Historic Cemeteries Association, and Lynette Strangstad, a consultant on burial ground preservation and author of A Graveyard Preservation Primer (Nashville: American Association for State and Local History, 1988). Laura Ann Luebking assisted in revising the bibliography.
Searching in cemeteries compensates for the effort it requires if only for the information cemeteries provide about children under the age of twenty-one. In the twentieth century, where the death rate for children is fewer than 8 per 1,000 live births, we often fail to realize that the local cemetery may contain the only evidence of some young nineteenth-century lives.
The cemetery is also, sadly enough, sometimes the only real evidence of some women’s lives. A woman, hidden in her father’s household during her growing years and recorded in pre-1850 censuses as “female 5-10 years of age,” may be located under her own name for the first time on her headstone.
Even though colonial gravestones are often long since gone or illegible, the surviving gravestones in a cemetery are important sources of information for immigrants. Sometimes the only recording of the original surname is on a gravestone, overlooked by a genealogist who was unaware that the family name had been Americanized and thus missed the original spelling in the alphabetical list. Had the grave plot itself been checked, the person’s juxtaposition to known family members would have drawn attention to the difference in the name. The period of time when the largest number of immigrants arrived—1820 to 1920—coincides with gravestones which have survived.
Most churches, until around World War II, were constructed on lots large enough to provide their members with burial grounds. Even churches in large cities had adjacent burial yards. Some of these still exist; however, as cities grew, church membership increased, and real estate values rose, the need for larger burial facilities developed and burial grounds were established in the suburbs while the old plots were used as building sites. Sometimes the graves were moved; sometimes they were not.
Public Cemeteries
Most local civil jurisdictions in the United States have some sort of public burial ground. Some are maintained by the counties; however, most of them are village, town, township, or city burial sites. Some national and state jurisdictions maintain burial facilities for veterans and their families.
Family Burial Plots
Still common in rural areas of the United States are family burial grounds. With the enforcement of health codes that require burial permits, the use of licensed morticians, and regulations governing health hazards, such private plots are disappearing. In the nineteenth century or earlier, most rural families had family burial sites; usually the site was on the farm first settled by the family in the area. These cemeteries are the most difficult to locate, but obviously they are most valuable for establishing family identity. Today properties on which those cemeteries are located are often in the hands of unrelated persons. Fences are left in disrepair and gravestones are often overturned, broken, buried, carried away, or otherwise lost. Some, however, are still well preserved and cared for by descendants or local historical societies.
Commercial Memorial Parks
Since World War II, with the development of large, highly transient city populations, a new sort of burial institution has come into being: the commercially owned and operated nonsectarian facility.
Entries in burial registers are chronological as the funerals occurred. If the registrar noted which plot the person was buried in, you can sometimes deduce relationships, a valuable clue because gravestones may have been destroyed or never placed on the grave, women’s maiden names are often not recorded, and children may not have been mentioned in previous records.
Church Burial Registers - Churches that have affiliated burial grounds usually maintain records of interments in their burial registers. These records sometimes include the names of other family members, as the following register from Killinger’s Church shows.
Finding such registers today presents a problem. Some have been placed in central church archives or church-affiliated university libraries; some have descended through the heirs of ministers or clerks along with other personal effects; some are stored in the original meetinghouses. In short, you may have to hunt for them.
Sexton’s Records - All municipal cemeteries, many large denominational facilities shared by two or more churches in a community, all commercially operated memorial parks, and a few large family burial grounds have offices or official caretakers where you can expect to find a registry of burials called the sexton’s book. Such records also list the plots available—occupied, owned, or not owned—described in sufficient detail for sale and resale. The sexton’s record is thus an accurate record of cemetery deeds and plats.
Cemetery Deeds - The original cemetery deeds, like the deeds to any real estate, are given to the owner of the plat; however, recorded copies are retained by the sexton in separate cemetery deed books. Sales, transfers, and bequests of title to this property are duly recorded also.
Plat Records - In areas before local governments were functioning effectively, graves were dug where convenient with no concept of plots; often, the burial wasn’t recorded. With the platting of cemeteries, selling plots, and registering deeds, attempts were made to record earlier burials. In many instances, the names and burial dates could be obtained, but the actual location of the grave was lost. Figure 3-13 is a plat record that was reconstructed after burials in the last four decades of the nineteenth century; for that reason, it is incomplete.
Burial Permit Records - Since around 1920, state health departments have regulated burials. Today, very few jurisdictions permit burials except by licensed morticians, who either obtain or determine that someone else has obtained a certified burial permit from the city or county authority. These records constitute another valuable source of burial information.
Grave Opening Orders - Most cemeteries preserve records of all grave openings, whether for burial, postmortem exhumation, or transfer of body. These records are known as grave opening orders and usually begin around the time of state registration of deaths. The order shown here is for a new grave. We can deduce that Matilda Bennion was an adult because children are buried in graves less than five feet in length. Amy Fowler was probably a relative. A researcher would be able to find the death certificate rapidly because its number is given.
Family Bibles - While family Bible records are more appropriately classified as home sources, they are also a primary source— sometimes the only source—for private burials. Usually, such Bibles are still in family hands; however, it has become increasingly popular for local and regional historical societies and other agencies to acquire the personal effects of original settlers and early families of their areas. The National Archives and the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C., also have collections of Bible records sent as evidence in various claims against the United States government. These pages have been removed from their case files and arranged in alphabetical order. Lists of the Bible records are available upon request.
Monuments and Memorials
Few experiences in family history offer more intrigue, interest, and even recreation than searching for monuments and their inscriptions. Even when written records are available and seemingly complete, these sources should always be used.
Prominent, influential, and affluent families often present special gifts—stained glass windows, altar pieces, sacramental services, confessionals, ornaments, statues—in the name and memory of their deceased relatives. Plaques or inscriptions give names, dates, and relationships of those involved with such gifts.
Sometimes the family may make contributions in lieu of flowers toward a special trust fund, organization, or project in the memory of a deceased loved one. Records are often maintained of all who contribute, the amount of the contribution, and the date made. Indications of this type of memorial will be found in newspaper accounts, court records, home sources, and the records of the person or institution responsible for the fund or project.
The burial of a loved one in a tomb or raised vault rather than a grave is customary among some ethnic groups and is the practice of some families. These tombs are normally in a special part of the cemetery or in mausoleums created expressly for this purpose. The inscriptions found on the tombs themselves are similar to regular monument inscriptions. The decoration of the tomb is an important part of the memorial. Burial registers may be stored in a special cupboard inside the tomb.
The ashes of the cremated are usually placed in urns and preserved in vaults at the crematory itself, at the cemetery where the other family members are interred, or in the home of a family member. Inscriptions may be etched on a plaque or other label.
Monuments with inscriptions are extremely varied, ranging from wooden crosses rotted into illegibility to long marble slabs with paragraphs of biography inscribed upon them. Dates of birth and death, places of birth and death (especially when far removed from the place of burial), names of parents, names of spouses, occupation, brothers and sisters, and special circumstances of life can be found.
Genealogists should also be aware of indirect evidence that can be found in monument decorations. Decorations can express occupations, age, sex, interests, cause of death, religious affiliation, membership in ethnic and fraternal organizations, and philosophies of life. Such details are rarely recorded by transcribers, but sketches, photographs, and rubbings can preserve these symbolic messages.
The date when the stone was placed on the grave is very important. Obviously, one placed two days after the funeral is usually more reliable than one placed fifty years later, although there are exceptions. Gravestones, like cars, have distinctive styles and materials depending upon the year they were made that can provide clues about the time of placement.
By carefully studying the vintage of the gravestone, the researcher can more accurately determine the validity of its inscription. Modern gravestones with ancient dates indicate replacement of an earlier gravestone or considerable time lapse between death and grave marker.
Most older and some new graves sink, leaving a slightly depressed area outlining the dimensions of the grave. If no age or birth date is given, you can determine which graves are those of children and which are of adults by measuring which are more than five feet in length.
Procure a detailed county or city map with churches and cemeteries marked on it. County road maps are usually available through county or state highway departments, assessors’ offices, or registrars of deeds. In rural areas, it is also helpful to have a U.S. Geological Survey quadrangle map for the area you are researching, for some inactive cemeteries may not be indicated on the current county map. Mark the cemeteries nearest the land holdings or residences of family members directly on your map.
If this process seems elaborate, consider that a county may cover more than six hundred square miles. You could spend hours driving and asking local residents who may know less than you do about the area without ever locating the cemetery where your ancestors are buried.
When searching for family burial plots, you are dependent upon your own keen observation and the help of local residents once you are within half a mile of the cemetery’s location. Since the 1930s, increasingly large acreages left unattended have succumbed to weeds, brambles, and trees. Some of this land is in the federal land bank. Some has been left by owners who now work in industry. It is not uncommon to find a property owner who is unaware of a burial plot in his or her woods. The best help may come from older residents who have lived in the area for years or young boys who enjoy rabbit and grouse hunting.
Research Preparation
When you search a cemetery, you should arrive with as many clues as you can: surname variants, people who married into your family, maiden names of women on your pedigree, and dates of settlement and migration into and out of the area. Be sure to check land records and county or town histories to learn precisely when and where the first family member settled in the area, when and from where subsequent members of the family arrived in the area, precise property descriptions for graveyards located on family land or nearby farms, land reserved for burial grounds or conveyed to church or township authorities, bequests in wills to maintain a graveyard, location of families in relationship to churches in the area, church affiliations of family members, and the location of families in relationship to cities and villages in the county.
Check death certificates for the names of all cemeteries in which family members are buried. Usually, family members are buried in clusters. Even where surnames are familiar, consider the probability that persons buried nearby are related to you. Acquire death certificates for all children of the pedigree ancestor you are seeking.
Check printed compilations of cemetery inscriptions. Earning the gratitude of all researchers, county and state genealogical societies, in cooperation with Boy Scout troops, the U.S. Department of Energy, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, university and college units, and other interested parties have restored, copied, indexed, and otherwise preserved the information from gravestones. The results are printed in scattered volumes of local proceedings, newsletters, and journals. The printed compilations usually have inexpensively available every-name indexes. The inscriptions are copied by people who know local surnames and who may know where persons are buried for whom there are no gravestones. The volume will also have a location map showing where cemeteries are in relation to modern roads.
Relocated Cemeteries
In areas where land use has changed from agricultural to urban or industrial, few local people actually know where cemeteries have been relocated, but local historical societies have done much to preserve records of them.
When a dam is built, with subsequent flooding of local areas, or a freeway planned or an energy reservation set aside, surveys of local cemeteries are made to determine if any will be disturbed and, if so, where the bodies will be reinterred. These reinterment projects produce generally accurate records of all graves and inscriptions. Efforts are made to identify the occupants of unmarked graves using family records, the memories of local residents, and public documents.
These interments are usually recorded on file cards that are arranged alphabetically within geographic areas. They are open to the public through mail or telephone requests, and the information is usually available without charge or for a minimal copying fee. A good example is the Tennessee Valley Authority, with its thousands of maps, cemetery inscriptions, and other valuable materials all along the Tennessee River. Some maps and cemetery inscriptions are available through the TVA Mapping Services, (HB 2A) 1101 Market Street, Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801.
Military facilities sometimes relocate graves as well. Fort McPherson National Cemetery in Maxwell, Nebraska, opened in 1873 to consolidate twenty-two cemeteries in Colorado, Wyoming, South Dakota, Idaho, and Nebraska. By 1947, the project had been completed. The cemetery is carefully plotted and indexed with control markers throughout the grounds; even so, there are 584 “unknown” graves. Copies of these records are in the National Archives and at Fort McPherson in Maxwell, Nebraska.
Churches that were moved during the years of their existence usually have more than one burial ground. For example, the old cemetery of the Augusta Stone Church in Fort Defiance, Augusta County, Virginia, is walled and stands behind a screen of trees. The grave of Rachel (Crawford) Berry, who was born on 18 April 1812 and died on 23 May 1832, wife of Thornton Berry, lies alone on the side of the hill. One hundred yards away in the Crawford family plot lies her ten-year-old son, James. Across the main highway and over a block lies a new portion adjoining the new Augusta Stone Church. There lies Thornton Berry, who died on 11 December 1882 at age seventy-two, and his second wife, Nancy, who died in April (year illegible) at age eighty-one, and other members of his family. Had the old portion, which is not visible from the road, been neglected, Thornton’s first wife and son would have been overlooked.
It was fairly common for congregations to split during controversies and for the dissenting unit to build separate facilities—meetinghouse and cemetery—a few miles away. An example is found in Virginia. New Providence congregation broke with Old Providence over the procedure of singing hymns in meetings in the early nineteenth century. As a result, there are two churches and two cemeteries located only two miles apart. Sometimes the two congregations reunite at a later time and build a third meetinghouse, closing down the previous two. Furthermore, because it is common for members of the same family to have belonged to different churches, you should plan to search all cemeteries in the immediate vicinity of the family home, regardless of religious affiliations.
The procedure to follow in locating graves differs somewhat depending upon the size of the cemetery. The sexton’s records, when they exist, should be searched first regardless of the size or type of gravestone. By looking at the names, you can locate females with surnames of interest who are buried under married names in the plots of other relatives who have surnames unknown to you.
Family cemeteries are usually very small and without sexton’s records. You should, therefore, read every gravestone to determine which graves are those of ancestral families. For very large public, church, and private cemeteries, consult the various kinds of sexton’s records to determine when family members were buried and the exact locations of each one. Then check the master plat or map showing the individual cemetery plats and their smaller subdivisions (sections, blocks, tiers, etc.) to determine the locations of graves for the period of time in which you are interested. Some cemeteries provide smaller map reproductions on which you can mark the grave sites in which you are particularly interested.
Searching in Cemeteries
It is best to explore cemeteries with one or more companions rather than conducting a search alone. Drive through or walk around the cemetery before examining individual gravestones. Absorb some of the atmosphere of the setting. Consider the location, the upkeep and condition, size, presence of above-ground burials, fenced-off or enclosed sections, plantings, artwork and statuary, presence of the graves of prominent citizens, positioning of gravestones and their relationship to others, and color and material of the stones. These elements provide evidence of ethnic graveyards, the economic base of the community, historical events, lifestyle and outlook of local residents, and other details.
Next, focus on individual gravestones, looking for naming patterns in the plots. A large name stone in the center with smaller stones around it bearing only given names may indicate Swedish origins. If the smaller gravestones have relationships or initials only, it may indicate German origins.
Note the dates of death. Many gravestones with proximate death dates can indicate an epidemic, a weather disaster, a mine accident, or the close of a generation. For example, in the Darling, Minnesota, Swedish cemetery, burials took place starting about 1870. They were the children of the immigrant generation who arrived in Minnesota just before the turn of the century with their parents or were born shortly after their arrival in America.
A Swedish cemetery will have gravestones in gray, sand, pink, and other warm, soft colors. The setting will be uncluttered, with open spaces around the plots and scanty data on the stones. Polish graves have large, heavy black or red gravestones in rows, with precise dates and frequently the original spelling of the surname. Early New England and Virginia origins show up in ornate carvings of death’s heads, weeping willows, and all-seeing eyes on gravestones large enough to include the essential facts and a scriptural verse. These gravestones are liberally interspersed with flat, biographical gravestones giving full details of family relationships. Quaker gravestones were exactly twelve inches high until well into the nineteenth century. Quaker stones with incomplete or missing inscriptions may have been “oversize” monuments that Quaker leaders ordered trimmed to customary size.
Many cemeteries have special sections set aside for specific kinds of burials. The sexton’s records for the paupers’ section will be found among poor relief or workhouse records; blacks, Asians, and Native Americans may be buried in “colored” sections; religious sections may contain Catholics, Jews, or Muslims. Those who died without the sacraments of a church may be found in an unconsecrated section of a religious cemetery. In Masonic sections, burials are in crypts or wall vaults. Watch for other sections as well.
The best time of year to conduct cemetery searches is in the early spring, after winter has killed the weeds and before spring briars and grasses begin growing or snakes come out of hibernation. Snow and winter rain will have removed some of the moss from the faces of the gravestones.
Many cemeteries, especially abandoned ones, harbor snakes, chiggers, poison ivy, thorns, and other natural hazards. Wear protective clothing, including gloves and sturdy shoes. Be alert for animals, uneven ground, and other hazards. A can of Mace or another eye-stinging mist may deter dogs. Again: knowledgeable cemetery searchers advise never going to a cemetery alone.
The more times you copy an inscription, the greater the chance of error. Therefore, take an ample supply of family group worksheets or research notepaper with you and transcribe the data directly on the worksheet or notepaper.
Most researchers copy only the direct genealogical data: dates and places of birth and death, parents, husband, and wife. Such a practice, however, can cause you to overlook the clues indicated in the selection of epitaphs: church affiliation, survivors, occupations, military service, cause of death, physical description, citizenship, and migrational patterns.
Another reason for recording all that you find is the fragility of the site. Once you leave the site, the information may no longer be available to you. Many cemeteries are destroyed through vandalism, development, or other circumstances, and what you record on your visit may soon thereafter prove to be the only information available. Consider the potential needs of those working in related fields—landscape historians, archaeologists, folklorists, and preservationists, as well as future family historians who could benefit from your data. Always reread your notes for accuracy and completeness before leaving the cemetery, comparing them to the gravestones.
One manner of insuring a complete recording of data is to plot the site. Because people are usually buried in family units, drawing a diagram of each plot enables you to analyze graves in their relationships to others: size, location, gravestones, etc. On the backs of your worksheets, sketch the gravestones as they appear in the plot; number each one, then list the inscription and description of the stone by the same number on the worksheets. Where family units are definite, record them on the same worksheet as a family; but where there is any question, list each one on a separate sheet and refer by number back to the plot you have drawn for the relationship of each individual grave to the entire plot.
Although compiled records cannot fully replace a personal search, historical, genealogical, and patriotic societies have performed a valuable and commendable service in preparing compilations of gravestone inscriptions, especially in view of the annual toll taken on grave markers through neglect, highway construction, suburban development, and reclamation projects. Beware, however, the compiled source that obscures family relationships because the entries are artificially arranged in an alphabetical sequence. The value of such works is dramatically increased when the inscriptions are listed as found in the graveyard, cross-referenced to their specific locations on a map of the cemetery, and indexed by surname on separate pages.
Another weakness of these compilations comes from including only the names, dates of birth and death, and relationships. Indirect evidence and clues are omitted because they are too voluminous.
Reading and Photographing Gravestones
Whether an “expedition” to read cemetery stones is a personal or group effort, secure permission from the proper authorities before beginning. Explain the nature of your work and be specific about how you intend to approach the reading or photography. Become familiar with the proper methods of care for these valuable and irreplaceable artifacts.
The popular stones for markers in years gone by were often soft. Often, old inscriptions are so weathered they can hardly be deciphered. Furthermore, there may be an accumulation of moss or lichen on the gravestones. It is improper to use harsh abrasives or wire brushes to remove such growth because these measures further damage the inscriptions and are of questionable value even to the immediate user. Chalking is not a good practice; it can actually stain porous stone. If a gravestone must be cleaned, preservationists recommend gently brushing away loose material with a natural bristle brush, then wetting the gravestone with clean water. Carefully remove organic growth with a natural bristle brush, using a smaller brush to clean incised areas. Thoroughly rinse the stone with clean water and pat the surface dry with a soft towel.
While photographing produces an exact copy of the gravestone itself, it may not give you a legible reproduction. Use a Polaroid camera or, if you use a regular camera, copy the inscription in your notes in case the photograph does not turn out.
For details on how to make a documentary photograph (as opposed to an artistically pleasing photograph), see Daniel and Jessie Lie Farber, Making Photographic Records of Gravestones, a leaflet published by The Association for Gravestone Studies, 30 Elm St., Worcester, MA 01609. The Farbers advise that documentary photographs be made only in brilliant sunlight. The light should fall across the face of the gravestone at an angle of approximately thirty degrees. If necessary, a mirror can be positioned to reflect sunlight across the stone. Never attempt to straighten a leaning or fallen gravestone. Doing so could result in permanent damage to the marker. Instead, tilt the camera to correspond with the lean of the stone. A thirty-five millimeter camera is recommended. For black-and-white photographs, tri-X film shot at a shutter speed of 1/250th of a second produces good results. Using a tripod and light meter can further enhance results.
After developing, handle the photographs carefully. Obtain clear, archive-quality sleeves to protect them from fingerprints. Include labels with the photographs, but do not mark directly on the photograph itself.
Special Problems Encountered When Recording Gravestone Data
Making Gravestone Rubbings. The following caution, from Preservation of Historic Burial Grounds, Information Series No. 76, 1993 (Washington, D.C.: National Trust for Historic Preservation, 1993), is worth repeating. “Gravestone rubbing should be strongly curtailed or eliminated due to potential damage to markers. Irreparable and significant damage has been done by people who thought themselves to be both careful and knowledgeable. In addition to the damage caused by pigment residue, most visitors are not able to accurately distinguish between sound gravestones and unstable ones. Because of the potential damage, rubbing is best avoided altogether.”
Fallen Markers. Markers frequently fall and are buried under an accumulation of undergrowth and topsoil. When working in poorly kept cemeteries, carry a probe long enough to gently check the ground eight to ten inches deep. Carefully check fence lines and hedgerows. Fallen markers that could not be easily replaced may have been carried to the side and propped against a fence or left on the ground. Though they cannot be readily identified with the appropriate plot, the inscriptions are still valuable. Notify the proper authorities of the locations of fallen markers; do not attempt to replace or repair them yourself.
Duplicate Gravestones. When a new gravestone is prepared for a grave, there is always the possibility that the stone cutter will leave the original stone in place; you may thus find two gravestones for the same person. In very old cemeteries, you may also discover some apparent duplicates that are really a headstone and a footstone. A gravestone for the same person may appear in a family cemetery or plot with a second gravestone in the cemetery where the person is actually buried.
Preservation of Cemeteries
All researchers need to be concerned about and supportive of the ongoing efforts of cemetery preservation organizations and genealogical and historical societies seeking to bring conservation procedures to the attention of cemetery officials. Individuals and groups interested in familiarizing themselves with this process (which certainly should be done before any cemetery projects are undertaken) would benefit from a study of Lynette Strangstad, A Graveyard Preservation Primer (cited earlier). This work was published in cooperation with the Association for Gravestone Studies (30 Elm Street, Worcester, MA 01609) and is a landmark in the field. Write for a current list of the association’s publications.
